Table 1 Closterovirids with their origin, natural hosts, transmission vectors, diverse modes of infection, and disease epidemiology
Genus | Species | Origin | Natural hosts | Vector | Mixed infection | Disease epidemiology | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ampelovirus | AiPoV1 | Florida, USA | Dioscorea bulbifera | Pseudococcidae | DVM | It causes mild disease symptoms in isolated conditions, while co-infection may also result in synergistic effects, creating additional symptomology. Environmental factors promising to vector population dynamics result in disease epidemics | Dey et al. (2019) |
BVBaV | Mississippi, USA | Blackberry, Beta vulgaris | Pseudococcus maritimus | BYVaV, BVY, BPYV, BCRV, INSV, TRSV | The impact of BVBaV longevity and quality attributes has been documented in several blackberry cultivars. Rapid disease spread was observed in the affected areas, causing significant losses | Thekke-Veetil et al. (2013) | |
GLRaV-1 | Australia | Vitis vinifera, V. rotundifolia | Pseudococcidae, Coccidae | GLRaV-1, GLRaV-3, GLRaV-4, GLRaV-5, GLRaV-9, GLRaV-13, GLRaV-Cn | Grapevine leafroll disease (GLRD) spreads through grafting and vectors, causing about 60% of the losses in grapes production globally. Resistant cultivars and insect vector management reduce the disease impact significantly | ||
GLRaV-3 | Australia | V. vinifera (Pinot noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Barbera) | Pseudococcidae, Coccoidea | GRSPaV, GVA, GVB | It is considered as a main etiological agent contributing to GLRD, consistently affecting vine health and crop production economically over the lifespan of a vineyard when no intervention strategies are implemented | Maree et al. (2013) | |
GLRaV-4 | Australia | V. vinifera | Planococcus ficus, Ceroplastes rusci | GLRaV-1, GLRaV-3, GLRaV-4, GLRaV-Cn, GLRaV-13 | In ampelovirus disease epidemics, the diversity, morphology, fecundity, and transmission efficiency of a vector species in a specific grapevine-growing area have significant epidemiological consequences | Naidu et al. (2014) | |
GLRaV-13 | Japan | V. vinifera | Pseudococcidae, Coccoidea | GLRaV-1, GLRaV-3 | Its infection causes severe mortality due to graft incompatibility in nurseries and vineyards, and delayed or irregular ripening which can affect harvest timing and crop production up to 50% | Ito and Nakaune (2016) | |
LChV2 | Australia | Prunus Avium, P. cerasus | Phenacoccus aceris, Pseudococcus maritimus | LChV1, LChV-2/USA6a, LChV-2/USA6b | It is a primary causal agent of little cherry disease (LCD). In British Columbia and Canada, a region that borders Washington State, LChV2 was reported at an epidemic level, resulting in 90% losses of marketable sweet cherry production between 1947 and 1979. Vector magnitude, grafting, and sample transportation are the main epidemiological consequences | ||
PMWaV-1, PMWaV-2, PMWaV-3 | Hawaii, USA | Ananas comosus | Dysmicoccus brevipes, D. neobrevipes | PMWaV-2, PMWaV-3, PMWaV-1 | PMWaV-1 is a causal agent of Mealybug wilt of pineapple disease (MWPD). Plants affected by MWPD were infected by both PMWaV-3 and PMWaV-2, indicating that a complex of ampeloviruses may be widespread in Cuban pineapple fields. Favourable environmental conditions for vector population dynamics result in disease epidemics. Implement certification procedures for pineapple propagation materials and various cultivars to reduce the economic impact of MWPD on pineapple crops in Cuba and all over the world | Sether and Hu (2002), Hernández-Rodríguez et al. (2017) and Dey et al. (2018) | |
PBNSPaV | USA | Prunus salicina, P. persica, P. avium, P. dulcis, P. armeniaca | Not reported | CVA, CNRMV, CGRMV, LChV-1 | PBNSPaV has high epidemiological consequences because of the large number of hosts. In mixed infection conditions, it causes severe economic losses globally. Certification of propagation materials can reduce the economic impact of disease | ||
Closterovirus | BYSV | California, USA | Beta vulgaris, Chenopodium capitatum, Chenopodiaceae, Compositae, Geraniaceae, Portulacaceae, Solanaceae | Nasonovia lactucae, Myzus persicae, Macrosiphum euphorbiae | BYV, BtMV, BWYV | BYSV incidence is very high during prolonged dry conditions if plants are infected with other viruses. Epidemics of disease have been reported in rows adjacent to the sowthistle-infested area, but progressively decrease with increasing distance from the virus source | Karasev et al. (1998) |
BYV | M. persicae, Aphis fabae, Rhopalostphum padi, Macrostphum rosae | BWYV, BMV, BCTV, BChV, BMYV, BtMV | BYV infection decreases 20–35% of crop production and has epidemic consequences for yield loss under co-infection conditions with BWYV and BMV. It also increases beet plant susceptibility to infection by several pathogenic fungi and BCTV | ||||
CNFV | Japan | Dianthus caryophyllus, D. barbatus, Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat cv., White Snowdon | M. persicae, A. craccivora, A. gossypii | CarMV, TAV, TSWV, CVB | It has caused severe disease in carnation crops, particularly in mixed infections with other viruses. The virus was reported to have about 14% disease incidence in California, USA, in 1983. In general, high levels of crop hygiene, including vector control and resistant cultivars, have reduced the virus incidence | ||
CYLV | Daucus carota L., Heracleum sphondylium L., Beet roots | Cavariella aegopodii, C. archangelicae, C. theobaldi, C. pastinacae | CtRLV, CMoV, CtRLVaRNA, PYFV | CYLV is a causal pathogen of carrot internal necrosis, causing the incidence of necrosis by 96%. Favorable climatic conditions for vector populations and viral sources are the main consequences of CYLV disease epidemiology | Adams et al. (2014) | ||
CTV | Florida, USA | Citrus sinensis, C. reticulata Blanco, C. paradisi Macf., C. aurantifolia (Christm.), C. limon (L.) Burn. f | Toxoptera citricida, A. gossypii | CDVd, CTV isolates (CTV9R-MCA13NR, T30-1) | The most devastating tristeza epidemics occurred in Argentina (1930), Brazil (1937), California (1939), Florida (1951), Spain (1957), Israel (1970), and Venezuela (1980), but significant outbreaks have also been reported from Cyrus (1989), Cuba (1992), Mexico (1995), Dominican Republic (1996), and Italy (2002). The certification of bud-stock and the planting of resistant rootstock are major counter-measures in combating the disease | Moreno et al. (2008) | |
GLRaV -2 | North America | V. vinifera L., V. rotundifolia, V. aestivalis | Not reported | GLRaV-3, GLRaV-1, GLRaV-4, GLRaV-13, GLRaV-Cn | It plays a significant role in GLRD epidemics through grafting and causes severe losses in grape production globally. Rootstocks and bud treatment as well as resistant cultivars, reduced the disease impact significantly | ||
MV-1 | USA | Golden ginger, Ginger, Mint | Ovatus crataegarius | SLRSV, TRSV, MV-2 | In a solitary condition, MV-1 has less epidemiological impact than other viruses. Although under co-infections and suitable environmental conditions, this virus displays striking yellow vein banding symptoms on Variegata plants | Tzanetakis et al. (2005a) | |
RLMV | UK | Raspberry, Blackberry, Red raspberry | Amphorophora agathonica Hottes | RMoV, RLSV, RpLV, RYNV, BRNV | Its synergistic interactions with RMoV, RpLV, RYNV, and BRNV resulted in black raspberry decline (BRD) and raspberry mosaic disease (RMD) epidemics | ||
RLRaV | Canada | Rosa multiflora Thunb, Rosa rugosa Thunb | Not reported | ASGV, BCRV, PNRSV | The most destructive disease of commercial roses is a wild rose leaf rosette disease (WRLRD), primarily caused by RLRaV, resulting in severe epidemics with ASGV, BCRV, and PNRSV | He et al. (2015) | |
SCFaV | Western coast of North, America | Fragaria × ananassa Duch., F. vesca, F. virginiana | A. gossypii | SPaV, BPYV | Strawberry decline (SD) is characterized by plant collapse and death associated with SCFaV in mixed infection of SPaV and BPYV. Favorable meteorological factors and vector populations resulted in 100% crop losses | Tzanetakis and Martin (2008) | |
TV1 | Hertfordshire, Lanarkshire | Nicotiana tabacum, Solanum lycopersicum | Not reported | TMV, TVBMV, TSV | TV1 causes enation mosaic in tomato and tobacco plants with TMV, TSV, and TVBMV. This virus has high biological consequences | Wang et al. (2016a) | |
Crinivirus | AYV | USA (Illinois) | Abutilon theophrasti Medic., Anoda abutiloides A. Gray, Malvaceae | T. abutilonea Haldeman | Not reported | It is a whitefly-transmitted virus. Suitable meteorological factors for the vector population lead to a wide spread of disease | Tzanetakis et al. (2013) |
BnYDV | Spain | Phaseolus vulgaris L., Pisum sativum L., Lens culinaris Medik., Vicia faba L. | Bemisia tabaci (Q‐biotype) | BYMV, BLRV | BnYDV is a serious disease of beans. Its incidence increased from 34 to 50% in bean‐growing greenhouses from 2004 to 2005 in Spain | Martín et al. (2011) | |
BPYV | California, USA | Cucumis sativus, C. melo, Amaranthus retroflexus, Selosia cristata, Sonchus oleraceus | T. vaporariorum | CYSDV, CCYV, CABYV, SPaV | BPYV, together with CYSDV and CABYV, causes yellowing disease in the Cucurbitaceae family. Epidemics of disease are associated with its large host range, high light intensity, and vector population | Boubourakas et al. (2006) | |
BYVaV | North and South Carolina, USA | Blackberry, Raspberry | T. abutilonea, T. vaporariorum | BVY, INSV, BVE, BCRV | Blackberry yellow vein disease (BYVD) is a destructive disease of blackberries in the USA, caused by BYVaV in combination with several viruses. This virus appears to be the most prevalent and needs more attentions to its epidemiology | Poudel et al. (2013) | |
CYSDV | United Arab Emirates | Cucurbitaceae | B. tabaci (biotypes A, B), B. argentifolii | BPYV, CABYV | It causes yellowing disease in the Cucurbitaceae family in association with BPYV and CABYV. That has recently become a devastating production threat in cucurbit-growing regions of Mexico, southern USA, and Central America | Boubourakas et al. (2006) | |
DVCV | Virginia, USA | Diodia virginiana L., Rubiaceae | T. abutilonea, T. vaporariorum | Not Reported | Disease epidemics in the vicinity of infected crops are characterized by vector population dynamics. DVCV has fewer biological consequences than other viruses | Tzanetakis et al. (2011) | |
LChV | California, USA | Lactuca sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Spinacia oleracea, Phaseolus vulgaris | B. tabaci (A, B biotypes) | LIYV | In co-infection with LIYV, it causes yellowing disease on lettuce and sugarbeet. A disease epidemic was recorded in the southwest desert region of the USA because of its wide host range and vector population | Kubota and Ng (2016) | |
LIYV | USA | Lactuca sativa, Beta vulgaris, Cucumis melo, Daucus carota, Citrullus lanatus | B. tabaci (biotype A) | LChV | LIYV infected various autumn-planted vegetable crops (lettuce, sugarbeets, crucifers, and cucurbits). In the early 1980s, 100% of susceptible plants were affected, resulting in $20 million crop losses in a single growing season | Medina et al. (2005) | |
PYVV | Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru | Genera; Solanum, Polygonum, Rumex, Tagetes, Catharanthus, Malva | T. vaporariorum | PVY, ToCV, TICV | In various regions of Colombia, epidemiological surveys for potato yellow vein disease (PYVD) indicated Polygonum spp., Polygonum mepalense, Rumex obtusifolium, Tagetes spp., and Catharanthus roseus as potential viral reservoirs | Muñoz Baena et al. (2017) | |
SPaV | USA | Fragaria × ananassa Duch. | T. vaporariorum | BPYV | Strawberry pallidosis disease (PD), exhibiting decline symptoms in strawberries, is characterized by a mixed infection of SPaV and BPYV. The disease epidemic was reported during 2002–2003 in California, causing about 50-million-dollar losses in two seasons | Tzanetakis et al. (2006) | |
SPCSV | Sub-Saharan, Africa | Ipomoea batatas L., I. setosa, I. acuminata, I. hederacea, I. hederifolia | B. tabaci (biotype B), T. vaporariorum, B. afer sensu lato | SPFMV, SPMSV, SPMMV | It is an extremely destructive virus that causes yield loss, resistance breaking in sweet potato to SPFMV, and the combined infection causes a devastating severe sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) | Kreuze et al. (2002) | |
TVCV | South Korea | Chelidonium majus | Not reported | Not reported | A valuable herbaceous plant, Chelidonium majus, has undergone a serious viral threat because of TVCV. Epidemiological and biological consequences of this virus still need to be reported | Zhao et al. (2015) | |
ToCV | Florida, USA | Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., Solanum tuberosum, Capsicum annuum, Physalis philadelphica | B. tabaci (biotype A, B, Q), T. abutilonea, T. vaporariorum | TICV, ToSRV, TYLCV | ToCV and TICV are quarantine pathogens that cause yellow leaf disorder disease with TYLCV to agricultural crops in Florida (USA) and around the world. Disease epidemic has been reported in South Africa in whitefly-infested crops. Meteorological factors favoring vector and mixed infection of these viruses have significant epidemiological consequences | ||
TICV | California, USA | T. vaporariorum | ToCV, ToSRV, TYLCV | ||||
Velarivirus | APV1 | Hainan, China | Areca catechu L. | Not reported | Not reported | It causes a serious yellow leaf disease (YLD) of Areca palm, characterized by yellowing of leaves in the inner whorl and progressively extending to the outer whorl of the crown | Yu et al. (2015) |
CoV-1, CoV-2, CoV-3, CoV-4 | Hawaii, USA | Cordyline fruticosa L. | – | CoV-1, CoV-2, CoV-3, CoV-4, LChV-1, GLRaV-7 | These viruses cause ti ringspot disease (TRD) in mixed infection conditions. TRD was reported in commercial and residential ti plants harboring multiple velariviruses on the islands of Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii | ||
GLRaV-7 | Albania | V. vinifera | – | GLRaV-1, GLRaV-2, GLRaV-3 | GLRaV-7 plays a vital role in GLRD expression in association with other GLRaVs, contributing 40% economic loss to grape production | ||
LChV1 | Japan | Prunus avium, P. cerasus, P. mahaleb | – | LChV1, LChV2 | Little cherry disease (LCD) is a serious concern for sweet cherry producers globally. Disease epidemics occurred in Canada and Washington State in 1938 and 1940s, respectively, resulting in significant acreage eradication | Wang et al. (2016b) | |
Unassigned | AcV-1 | Italy | Actinidia chinensis, A. deliciosa | – | PZSV, AcVA, AcVB | This virus is a serious threat to the kiwifruit in China, Italy, New Zealand, and Chile. It is characterized by chlorotic and necrotic rings on leaves followed by general decline and death of the scion but not of the rootstock | Blouin et al. (2018) |
BVA | Michigan, USA | Vaccinium corymbosum, V. ashei | Aphidoidea | BlSSV, BLMoV | It causes a devastating threat to blueberry production in association with other viruses. Infected planting material is a major source of disease epidemics. Blueberry certification programs have minimized the impact of disease | Isogai et al. (2013) | |
MVBaV | Oregon, USA | Mentha × gracilis | Ovatus crataegarius | MVX | Mint has great importance for its unique fragrance, food, medical industry, and ornamentals. MVBaV adversely affects this crop and deteriorates its commercial characteristics | Tzanetakis et al. (2005b) | |
OLYaV | Mediterranean | Olea Europaea L. | – | – | It has been found with the highest incidence of 93.8% in California. In Southern Italian regions, OLYaV-infected olive trees have also been detected (60% in Sicily and 86% in Calabria) in a large number of cultivars (positive/tested 35/50 and 18/25, respectively) | Fontana et al. (2019) | |
PeVB | Japan | Diospyros virginiana L., D. kaki Thunb. | – | – | PeVB is a serious disease of American and Japanese persimmon, influencing the vigor, production, and quality of fruits | Ito et al. (2015) |