Table 2 Exogenous treatments of sphingolipids or sphingolipid metabolism inhibitors affecting plant cell death and immunity

d18:0, d18:1, t18:0, or d17:1 (0.3–100 μM)

Arabidopsis leaves, seedlings

ROS, cell death, expression of defense genes

(Shi et al. 2007; Peer et al. 2011; Saucedo-Garcia et al. 2011; Glenz et al. 2019; Zeng et al. 2022)

d18:0, d18:1, or t18:0 (10–50 μM)

Tobacco leaves, seedlings, BY-2 cells

Calcium increase, ROS, cell death, expression of defense genes

(Takahashi et al. 2009; Lachaud et al. 2010; Lachaud et al. 2011; Rivas-San Vicente et al. 2013)

t18:0 (2–25 μM)

Arabidopsis plants, cells

Calcium-dependent cell death, callose deposition, resistance of plants to P. syringae and aphids

(Lachaud et al. 2013; Begum et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2020a)

d18:0, or t18:0-P (100 μM)

Arabidopsis leaves

Effects on the response to P. syringae or B. cinerea

(Magnin-Robert et al. 2015)

t18:0 (1 μM)

Tobacco leaves

ROS, cell death, resistance of plants to Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae

(Seo et al. 2021)

t18:0-P (10 μM)

Arabidopsis leaves

PTI- and SA-induced stomatal closure

(Gupta et al. 2020a, b)

d18:0, d18:1, t18:0, d18:0-P, or d18:1-P (20 μM); t18:0-P (40 μM); DMS or SKi (5–25 μM)

Tobacco BY-2 cells

Effects on cryptogein-induced ROS in cells

(Coursol et al. 2015)

C2 Cer (30–50 μM), C6 Cer (100 μM), or C2 Cer-P (10 μM)

Arabidopsis, rice protoplasts

Cer induces ROS-, calcium-, caspase-, and mitochondrial membrane potential-associated cell death; Cer-P rescues Cer-induced cell death

(Liang et al. 2003; Yao et al. 2004; Bi et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2020)

GIPCs (100 μg/mL)

Arabidopsis leaves

Enhanced EV secretion and flg22-induced ROS

(Liu et al. 2020a)

FB1 (0.3–50 μM)

Various plants

Multiple defense responses, e.g., ROS, cell death, SA, JA, ET, calcium, extracellular ATP deletion, vacuolar membrane disruption, MAPK

(Zeng et al. 2020; Iqbal et al. 2021)

C2 Cer (20 μM), or FB1 (7 μM)

Tobacco protoplasts

Potassium loss-associated cell death

(Peters and Chin 2007)

Myriocin (0.1 μM), FB1 (5 μM), PDMP (50 μM), D609 (100 μM), or DMS (30 μM)

Arabidopsis seedlings

Effects on callose levels

(Iswanto et al. 2020)